June 1, 2025 Joel Manansala

Assessing the Real EV vs. ICE Environmental Impact

As the climate crisis escalates and global carbon emissions continue to rise, the transportation sector finds itself under increasing scrutiny. Globally, transportation contributes nearly 25% of energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, with a large portion stemming from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. As of 2020, more than 10 million EVs were on the road globally—a figure that continues to rise as EV adoption accelerates. In the United States, the transportation sector accounted for 37% of all CO₂ emissions from end-use sectors in 2021, underscoring the need for cleaner alternatives like EVs. As a result, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a potential solution to help cut GHG emissions and pave the way toward a more sustainable future.

Yet, questions remain: Are electric cars genuinely better for the environment than gasoline cars? How do tailpipe emissions compare to upstream emissions from electricity generation? And what about the environmental cost of battery production?

How Are Cars Made? The Hidden Cost of Production

Vehicle manufacturing is energy-intensive, requiring significant extraction and processing of raw materials. Conventional vehicles, powered by gasoline or diesel, demand the creation of engines, exhaust systems, and transmissions. On the other hand, electric vehicles eliminate many of these components but introduce the complex challenge of battery manufacturing.

Electric vehicle batteries (EV batteries), typically lithium-ion, require energy-intensive processes such as mining, refining, and transporting metals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel. These steps contribute to what is known as upstream emissions—greenhouse gases generated before a product even hits the road.

Battery Production Emissions

Battery production is a major contributor to the carbon footprint of a battery electric vehicle (BEV). The energy required to extract and process the raw materials, combined with the emissions from manufacturing plants (often powered by fossil fuels), can lead to high initial total ghg emissions.

Despite these higher emissions upfront, the long-term environmental benefits of EVs often outweigh those of ICE vehicles due to significantly lower operational emissions. Still, understanding the emissions at this early stage of production is critical to evaluating the EV vs. ICE environmental impact.

Vehicle Type	Battery Production Emissions (tCO₂e)	Vehicle Manufacturing Emissions (tCO₂e)
BEV	5	9
HEV	1	9
ICE	0	10

BEVs have the highest battery production emissions because they rely entirely on electric power stored in large lithium-ion batteries. However, the rest of the vehicle's manufacturing process is relatively efficient, resulting in 9 metric tons of CO2 equivalent (tCO₂e).
HEVs use smaller batteries, which explains their lower battery production emissions (1 tCO₂e), while still requiring similar vehicle manufacturing processes.
ICE vehicles don’t require batteries, hence zero battery production emissions. But their mechanical complexity, including engines and fuel systems, contributes to higher vehicle manufacturing emissions.

Battery manufacturing for EVs often requires mining of rare earth materials which produces carbon emissions, contributing to lifecycle emissions.

Tailpipe Emissions: Driving the Difference

Tailpipe emissions refer to the pollutants released directly from a vehicle's exhaust system. These include not only carbon dioxide (CO2), the primary greenhouse gas, but also nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These emissions result from the combustion of gasoline or diesel and are directly linked to poor air quality, climate change, and adverse public health outcomes.

Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

Gasoline and diesel-powered ICE vehicles are among the largest contributors to global air pollution. During operation, they emit high levels of CO2 and other harmful air pollutants. The combustion of fossil fuels in engines releases not only GHGs but also NOx, which contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone and smog. SOx emissions are responsible for acid rain, while PM can penetrate deep into human lungs, aggravating respiratory diseases. These emissions pose severe risks, especially in densely populated urban areas, leading to increased hospitalizations and long-term health issues.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles

The Prius Prime is one of the bestselling HEVs in the US

Hybrid electric vehicles combine an internal combustion engine with an electric motor to enhance fuel economy and lower emissions. Since HEVs often operate on electricity at lower speeds or under light loads, they emit fewer pollutants than ICE vehicles, especially in city driving conditions. However, they still rely on gasoline and emit tailpipe pollutants during engine operation. While HEVs represent a step forward in reducing emissions, their environmental benefits are limited compared to fully electric vehicles.

Battery Electric Vehicles

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) excel in minimizing local environmental impact. They produce zero tailpipe emissions, meaning they emit no CO2, NOx, SOx, CO, or PM while driving. This lack of local emissions significantly improves air quality, particularly in congested areas prone to traffic-related pollution. BEVs are especially beneficial for cities striving to meet air quality standards and protect public health. Additionally, they contribute to quieter streets by eliminating engine noise, thereby reducing noise pollution—another form of environmental degradation often overlooked.

Use-Phase Emissions: Electricity vs. Gasoline

The emissions associated with driving a vehicle go beyond what comes out of the tailpipe. For electric vehicles, these emissions are heavily influenced by the source of electricity used for charging. This introduces a critical distinction:

Fossil-fuel-based grids (coal, natural gas): Electricity generated from these sources emits high levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. As a result, EVs charged on such grids inherit part of this carbon intensity, leading to higher upstream emissions.
Renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro): These sources produce electricity with little to no emissions. Charging an EV with renewable energy results in minimal upstream emissions, especially when using efficient Level 2 EV chargers at home or work, amplifying the environmental benefits of EV ownership. Read more about How Many Solar Panels Do You Need to Charge a Tesla.

The average electricity mix in a region—defined by the proportion of electricity derived from fossil fuels versus renewable sources—is a decisive factor in determining the environmental benefit of driving an EV. Countries and states with a high share of renewables in their grid mix (e.g., Norway, Iceland, California) enable EVs to operate almost emission-free during the use phase. Conversely, in regions heavily reliant on coal or natural gas, the upstream emissions of EVs can rival those of high-efficiency gasoline cars.

EVs are more efficient than ICE vehicles, converting up to 86% of battery energy into electricity, compared to only 20% for ICE vehicles.

Additionally, future decarbonization of electricity grids will continue to improve the environmental performance of EVs, even without changing the vehicles themselves. This built-in scalability, coupled with the efficiency of power plants, is a critical advantage for long-term sustainability.

Upstream Emissions Comparison

Vehicle Type	Upstream Emissions from Energy Production (tCO₂e)
BEV	26
HEV	12
ICE	13

BEVs: These vehicles rely entirely on electricity. In regions where electricity is generated primarily from fossil fuels, their upstream emissions can be substantial. However, in areas with a high penetration of renewables, this number can drop dramatically—in some cases, to single digits.
HEVs: Because HEVs combine electric propulsion with traditional fuel, their upstream emissions are a mix of electricity production and gasoline fuel processing. They emit less than ICE vehicles but still contribute to upstream pollution.
ICE vehicles: Their emissions stem from the extraction, refining, and transportation of gasoline or diesel. These emissions are fairly consistent regardless of region, making ICE vehicles less scalable in terms of reducing GHGs.

Life Cycle Emissions: The Whole Picture

Vehicle Type	Total Lifecycle Emissions (tCO₂e)
BEV	39
HEV	47
ICE	55

These totals include emissions from every stage of a vehicle's existence: raw material extraction, vehicle manufacturing, operational emissions (such as fuel or electricity use), and end-of-life disposal or recycling.
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) accumulate higher emissions during the production phase due to the energy-intensive manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries. However, they produce no tailpipe emissions and have significantly lower operational emissions, especially when powered by electricity from renewable sources.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) strike a balance between gasoline and electric power, resulting in lower emissions than ICEs but higher than BEVs. Their dual powertrain allows for better fuel efficiency, though they still emit CO₂ and other pollutants when the engine is in use.
Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles are the least environmentally friendly over their lifecycle. Their reliance on fossil fuels not only contributes to high emissions during operation but also means they lack scalability in reducing emissions as energy systems improve.

Breakeven Point

For most EVs, the "carbon breakeven point" — when an EV's total greenhouse gas emissions drop below those of a comparable gasoline car — occurs at around 21,000 to 25,000 miles of driving. After this point, every additional mile driven results in a widening emissions gap in favor of the EV.

This breakeven point is influenced by several factors:

The carbon intensity of the local electricity grid: EVs charged in regions with cleaner electricity reach breakeven sooner.
Driving habits and efficiency: Urban driving with regenerative braking benefits EVs, while high-speed highway driving might diminish the advantage.
Vehicle size and efficiency: Larger, heavier EVs take longer to offset their production emissions, while compact, efficient models breakeven faster.

Charging and Grid Impact

With the rising adoption of electric vehicles and increased use of EV chargers, concerns have emerged about potential stress on existing electricity infrastructure. However, when managed correctly, EVs can actually play a pivotal role in improving grid reliability and stability.

Off-peak charging: Charging vehicles overnight, especially with home setups like Level 1 EV chargers, or during low-demand hours reduces strain on the grid and makes use of surplus electricity that would otherwise be wasted. It also balances the daily electricity load curve, helping utility providers operate more efficiently.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) systems: This innovative approach enables EVs to discharge electricity back into the grid when demand is high. Acting as mobile energy storage units, EVs with V2G capability can support grid resilience, prevent blackouts, and help integrate renewable sources more effectively.

Time-of-use pricing models and smart charging technologies also allow both consumers and utility companies to optimize energy usage, ensuring that EVs charge when electricity is cleanest and cheapest.

Renewable Energy Integration

Electric vehicles and renewable energy sources are natural allies in the quest for decarbonization. As more solar, wind, and hydropower projects come online, the emissions associated with EV charging continue to decline.

In regions with high renewable energy penetration, such as parts of Scandinavia and the U.S. West Coast, EVs are already powered predominantly by clean electricity. This creates a virtuous cycle: the more we invest in renewables, the cleaner EVs become over time.

Additionally, EV batteries can serve as backup storage for excess solar or wind energy, further smoothing out the supply-demand curve for renewable sources. This synergy helps address the intermittency challenge that renewables face, enabling a more robust and sustainable electricity grid.

Battery Recycling and EV Longevity

Modern EV batteries are designed to last for 150,000 to 200,000 miles, which is often the lifetime of the vehicle. According to the U.S. EPA, fewer than 3% of EV batteries need replacement due to failure. Additionally, many EV manufacturers offer battery warranties ranging from 8 to 10 years or up to 100,000 miles, providing consumers with long-term assurance.

Battery management systems (BMS) have also improved significantly, helping monitor battery health and extend life by preventing overcharging, overheating, and deep discharging. As battery technology continues to evolve, the expectation is that battery degradation will become less of a concern for future EV owners.

Battery Recycling Initiatives

Recycling can significantly reduce the environmental burden of battery production. Companies like Redwood Materials and the ReCell Center are developing closed-loop recycling processes that recover up to 95% of valuable battery materials such as lithium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese from battery produced waste.

These efforts not only conserve raw materials but also reduce the environmental footprint associated with mining and processing. By reintroducing recovered materials into the manufacturing cycle, recycled batteries can help support the sustainable scaling of electric mobility in the near future.

Maintenance and Ownership Costs

EVs have fewer moving parts, resulting in lower maintenance. They don't require oil changes, have simpler transmissions, and benefit from regenerative braking, which reduces brake wear.
ICE vehicles require regular oil and fluid changes, filter replacements, engine diagnostics, spark plug changes, and exhaust system maintenance.
HEVs fall in between. While they enjoy some of the benefits of electric motors, the inclusion of an ICE means they still require many of the same services as traditional gas cars.

Cost Comparison

Despite higher upfront costs, EVs often have a lower total cost of ownership. Lower fuel and maintenance expenses help owners save over the life of the vehicle. The table below provides a general comparison of ownership costs over 10 years:

Cost Component	BEV (Electric Vehicle)	HEV (Hybrid Vehicle)	ICE (Gasoline Vehicle)
Initial Purchase Price	Higher	Moderate	Lower
Fuel/Energy Costs	Lowest (electricity)	Moderate (fuel+electric)	Highest (gasoline)
Maintenance Costs	Lowest	Moderate	Highest
Battery Replacement	Rare, but expensive	Occasional	Not applicable
Government Incentives	Often Available	Sometimes Available	Rare
Total 10-Year Cost	Lowest overall (incentives + savings)	Moderate	Highest (fuel + upkeep)

BEVs benefit from dramatically lower fuel and maintenance costs. Even when accounting for battery replacement in rare cases, the total ownership cost tends to be lower than ICE vehicles.
HEVs offer fuel savings and some maintenance reductions, making them a good middle ground.
ICE vehicles are cheaper to buy upfront but incur significantly higher costs over time due to fuel and maintenance.

What's the Verdict? A Balanced View

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offer the most substantial long-term environmental benefits. With zero tailpipe emissions and the potential for carbon-free charging when powered by renewable energy, BEVs are the most promising technology to help meet global decarbonization targets. Their emissions during production are offset during operation, especially in regions where the electricity grid is already transitioning to renewables. Transitioning to EVs and reducing fossil fuel use in transportation is vital to achieving global net-zero emissions by 2050.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) provide a viable short- to medium-term solution, especially in areas where EV infrastructure is still developing. They reduce overall fuel consumption and emissions compared to ICE vehicles but are not entirely free from fossil fuel dependence.
Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) Vehicles remain the most environmentally detrimental. Despite improvements in fuel efficiency and emissions controls, ICE vehicles still produce high lifecycle emissions and rely entirely on fossil fuels.

FAQs

What is the carbon footprint of an EV vs. a gas car?

A typical EV emits about 39 tCO₂e over its lifetime, compared to 55 tCO₂e for a gas car. This includes emissions from manufacturing, operation, and disposal.
Is it worse for the environment to produce electric cars?

Yes, initially. EVs have higher production emissions due to battery manufacturing. However, they quickly become cleaner than gas cars after about 20,000 miles of driving.
What is the lifecycle carbon footprint of electric cars?

The lifecycle footprint of a BEV is around 39 metric tons of CO2, lower than both HEVs (47) and ICEs (55).

Will EV last longer than ICE?

Yes. EVs have fewer moving parts and are less prone to mechanical failure. Their batteries are engineered to last the vehicle’s lifetime.

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